Life on the Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula By: Minali Prasad Due Date: December 7, 2011 Class Color: Sapphire Table Number: 5 There are four different types of environments in the Arabian Peninsula. Three-fourths of the Arabian Peninsula is desert. The desert has plains and plateaus. Temperatures can reach up to 120 °F or drop down to below zero. There is 3 to 4 inches of rain per year with many droughts. Flash floods are caused by the annual rainfall. The desert has many oases. Oases result in plants, shade, and water. An oasis begins when water deep underground travels to the surface. The soil around and oasis is very fertile, so it produces plant life like grass and shrubs. Oases range from a few acres to expansive areas. The water is beneficial for farmers as they can grow their crops there as well as trade them. The coastal plain is surrounded by the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, and the Persian Gulf. The coastal plain varies from 5- 40 miles from the heart of Arabia. There are many cliffs along the shore. The damp, moist air is the result of regular rain. Sometimes, water fills the riverbeds that intercept the coastal plains. Farmers grow crops on the coastal plains. Traders also benefit from the coastal plains because there are seaports. The mountain ranges line the western edge of the Arabian Peninsula. Their altitude is from 1,000 feet to 12,000 feet high. The mountains have 20 inches of rainfall each year because of moist winds from the Southern Ocean. The mountain ranges stay cool by rain and elevation. Winter brings frost and fills the riverbeds with water. Farmers use dams and irrigation systems to help grow their crops. | Muhammad was a prophet which meant he was a messenger of God. Muhammad was important to Islamic faith because he introduced the belief in one God, also alled monotheism. Before Muhammad, people living in the Arabian Peninsula were polytheists which means they believed in more than one God. Muhammad was born in Mecca, a town that grew wealthy off of trade. At that time, Arabia was only united by culture, mostly language. Multiple families ruled the city whereas clans could only live in the city of Mecca. Mecca was a popul ar destination for pilgrimages. Arabs either lived in the cities or the deserts which was ruled by tribes. Muhammad’s tribe was Hashim. Hashim took notice of his birth since his father had died. Muhammad’s mother sent him to live with wandering nomads who taught him Arabic traditions. At age six, Muhammad returned to the city, but soon his mother died. After his grandfather’s death, Muhammad was left in the care of his uncle, Abu Talib. During his childhood, Muhammad raised his family’s sheep and goats. Later, at age twelve, Muhammad experienced place farther out than the deserts on a trading journey with his uncle. As a result of his numerous trading journeys, Muhammad became a merchant. He was described as â€Å"trustworthy†. Fifteen years later, Muhammad was notified, by the angel Gabriel, that he was the messenger of God. Khadijah, his wife, convinced him convert others to the religion of Islam. Though most people believed him, some clans rejected his faith and boycotted the Hashim clan. When it became too dangerous, Muhammad moved to Yathrib on a journey called hijrah. Yathrib was renamed Madinah. Makkans tried to siege Madinah but failed. In 632, Muhammad traveled on his last pilgrimage to Mecca and gave his Last Sermon. Muhammad was important to the Islamic faith because he united Arabia with religion, set an example for Muslims on how to live and introduced Islam into Arabia. | The â€Å"five pillars of Islam† are the five basic rules of worship for the Islamic faith. These ideas are faith, prayer, charity, fasting, and making pilgrimages to Mecca. Muslims today still follow the five pillars of faith. The first pillar of Islam is Shahadah. Shahadah is the declaration of faith in which Muslims identify themselves as monotheists. They also declare that Muhammad was God’s messenger. People pledge to believe in God and submit to him. Muslims also believe in angels and other creatures like them. Angels are perceived to do God’s work. The second pillar of Islam is Salat. Salat is daily ritual prayer. Muslims show their religious discipline, spirituality, and closeness to God through salat. Muslims five times a day and are called to prayer by a muezzin. Before entering a mosque, Muslims wash their arms, face, hands, and feet. Inside a mosque, an imam leads them in prayer. While praying, people face the direction of Mecca. A person may pray anywhere they like. The third pillar of faith is zakat which is giving to those in need. Muslims believe almsgiving discourages greed because they give 2. 5% of their earnings to â€Å"purify† themselves. Zakat was used for construction of public property. Today zakat is used for soup kitchens, clothing, shelter, orphanages and hospitals. An individual decides what the money is used for and where it goes. The fourth pillar of Islam is siyam or fasting where you do not eat or drink from dawn to dusk. Muslims show siyam through Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth month when Gabriel told Muhammad he was a prophet. During Ramadan, Muslims begin fasting when a white thread can be identified next to a black thread. To break a fast, Muslims eat food like dates and pray where they hear parts of the Qur’an each day. Ramadan teaches fasting and kindness. Eid-al-Fitr is a celebration that marks the end of Ramadan. The fifth pillar of Islam is hajj where a Muslim makes a pilgrimage to Mecca on the twelfth month. A person does so once in their life. Wearing white, Muslims circle the Ka’ba seven times. Later, they visit sacred sites like the Zamzam spring, Plain of Arafat, Mount Arafat and Mina. Pilgrims end with a celebration that lasts for four days. They sacrifice sheep or goats to God. This celebration is known as Eid-al-Adha. | The Arabic language emphasized learning. Even Muhammad himself declared that â€Å"The ink of scholars is more precious than the blood of martyrs†. Scholars from places like Europe, North Africa and the Middle East came together and cooperated to build on their ideas. Early Muslim rulers built places of learning for the students like schools, colleges, and libraries. For example, Caliph al-Ma’mun established the House of Wisdom in the city of Baghdad. This happened in 830. Scholars translated texts there. Those texts were from Greece, India, China, and Persia. There was also a House of Wisdom in Cairo which served for the purpose of scholars. This building opened in the tenth century. Another example is the famous library in Cordoba, Spain which has over 400,000 books. Some texts studied by scholars were those of Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. Muslim scholars tried to use reason and logic. An Arabic philosopher tried to combine reason with faith like Christian scholars but failed because he couldn’t prove there was a possibility of someone resurrecting on judgment day. Ibn Sina was a Persian philosopher who gave evidence that the soul of a creature was immortal. This philosopher influenced other scholars in Europe. Ibn Sina though that God was the source of knowledge and that truth could be extracted through reason and revelation. | Muslim scholars made theories about the evolution of animals like al-Jahiz. Zoology is the scientific study of animals. Muslims started the first zoos. They were also advanced in astronomy. With astronomy, people used compasses and astrolabes to locate the direction of Mecca. Another example of Muslims using astronomy is that astronomers figured out the exact times to start and end Ramadan. Astronomers also discovered that the Earth rotated. They inquired whether the Earth was the center of the universe. Muslim scholars were very curious about their universe. Muslims also made advancements in technology. They made dams and aqueducts like the Greeks to provide water for their cities. Remodeling the old irrigation systems, canals, and wells, they built new and sturdy ones. Muslims brought water from canals and reservoirs with water wheels. The land used Muslims is dry so this was very beneficial. In mathematics, Muslims worked with ideas from India and Greece. In fact, algebra was created by Al-Khwarizmi â€Å"father of algebra† His texts re now one of the most important today. Arabic numerals also came from one of Al-Khwarizmi’s books. Arabic numerals were used for business and trade. Muslims also learned fractions and decimals from an Indian scholar. Muslim scholars emphasized the concept of zero. Zero means â€Å"something empty†. Algebra, Arabic numerals and â€Å"zero† are still used today. Muslims learned medicine from Greeks, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians. There were many hospitals in the Muslim communities. Doctors had many ways to cure the sick and treat the wounded patients. The patients were treated with a balanced combination of drugs, diet, and exercise. Pharmacists made medications for the doctors to use. Pharmacists made different types of medications such as drugs for pain, antiseptics for infections and ointments for wounds. Surgeons did operations on the patients such as amputations, taking out tumors and removing cataracts. Some famous physicians were al-Razi and Ibn Sina. Al- Razi discovered that a bacterium is the cause of infections and Ibn Sina was called the â€Å"prince of physicians† because he wrote a book about the treatment of diseases. | Muslims had a unique style of architecture. One of the buildings that they created was the mosque. Mosques had towers called minarets which had a small platform like a deck so the muezzin could call Muslims to prayer. Outside of the mosque was a fountain in which Muslims could perform their washing of arms, face, hands, and feet. The prayer room was located inside the mosque where worshippers prayed, facing mihrab (niche to show the direction of Mecca). An imam led the prayers. There were many designs of mosques that showed the religious and artistic side of the Muslim community. The four types of art in the Muslim community were geometric and floral design, calligraphy, textile and music in Muslim Spain. Muslims were famous for their art that was used for decorative purposes. Muslims did not have pictures of humans and animals because they thought only God had the right to create something â€Å"alive†. Artists used shapes, patterns and geometry to make decorations. Decorations were also used on household items. Arabesque was a type of decoration where nature like leaves, and flowers, was painted onto many surfaces. Artists also used shapes like polygons in their art. The next type of art was calligraphy (the art of beautiful writing). The Qur’an was copied in calligraphy because Muslims thought calligraphy was beautiful enough to write the words of God. Calligraphers used tools such as bamboo and ink to create calligraphy. Calligraphy was used on pottery, tiles and swords. The third type of art was textiles. Textiles are manufactures clothes. Textiles were important trade items. The types of textiles were wool, linen, silk, or cotton. The fabrics could be embroidered or dyed. Importance and rank was used to indicate through clothes. The last form of art was music in Muslim Spain. Music centers were scattered all over the Islamic community but the music in Cordoba, Spain combined the cultures of Islam and Spanish to make their very own style. Ziryab started the first conservatory where musicians learned from him. Songs were important in Muslim Spain’s culture. There were song about love, nature and accomplishments of the empire. Muslim Spain’s music used instruments like drums, flutes and lutes. | The Crusades were a series of wars launched against Muslims by European Christians. The reason behind the Crusade was to capture Palestine or the city of Jerusalem. Palestine was being ruled by the Seljuk Turks, which was a developing empire. Afraid that their strength may one day become too great to overcome, the emperor Byzantine asked Pope Urban II what to do, and he suggested they start a religious war to capture the Holy Land and destroy the Seljuks. Christians fought with Muslims against Jews and other Christians. Their goal was to win the Holy Land. The Crusades took place in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Though Christians suffered through many hardships during the Crusades, they also gained from the war. Kings had to tax the people to pay for those who had fought in the Crusades. Feudalism among Christians ended because the monarchs grew powerful as the knight had to leave for war. The Crusades changed the way of life for Christians. They dressed in muslin, learned to eat new foods, and learned to use spices in their cooking. Muslims suffered more than Christians, but gained less. They lost Iberia to the other Crusaders. Muslims died and were murdered with their property destroyed. However, they learned to use new weapons and military ideas. They began an army like the Europeans. The Crusades resulted in political changes for the Muslims. New mosques and schools were built. Jewish crusaders suffered the most. There were violent persecutions and murders. The French and German murdered many Jewish, destroyed synagogues and tortured the Jewish until they agreed to become Christians. Riots and massacres were the result of anti- Semitism. Christians took over and ran the Jews’ trading businesses. France and England expelled the Jews. The Jews were finally forced to live in ghettos. |

Lost Letters of Perganum

The Lost Letters of Perineum, describes a collection of fictional letters being exchanged between two fictional characters known as Antipasti and Luke. Antipasti is a benefactor from Rome, and Luke is a physician and author of the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts. Luke is also the main person who Antipasti goes to throughout the novel for knowledge and answers to his many questions. The story is very well written and gives the reader an idea of what the first century Church was like.The letters also illustrate a vivid picture of Chrism's life and the effects his addict lifestyle had on the ancient culture. Antipasti, a self-established benefactor, resides from the cities of Tree and Caesar in Rome and is a worshipper of Jupiter and Culprits. Culprits, a nobleman from the city of Ephesus, went away when he suddenly lost his firstborn child. Due to his absence, Antipasti became quickly acquainted with Luke, whom was very wise and passionate about his beliefs in Jesus Christ.After An tipasti and Luke began writing to each other for a while, their conversations started to lean more towards the topic of spiritual matters and specifically towards Lake's decision to follow Jesus Christ and his works on Chrism's life. After much historical and spiritual discussion, the two moved to the topic of the gladiatorial events, in which people were slaughtered in front of hundreds of other people for entertainment. Antipasti was beginning to question the events and the morality of it all.As the two grew deeper into their spiritual conversation and Luke shared more of his views of Christ, Antipasti grew very curious. He began reading a narrative by Luke about Jesus Christ, and told Luke his thoughts and opinions about his work. Antipasti' curiosity soon led him to join a fellowship of Christians in his town led by a an named Notations. He met with the group regularly and saw what a huge effect Christ had on their modern culture. Antipasti grew to know more about Christ and bel ieved he was indeed the Son of God.His passion for him grew, and he knew that he should begin worshipping Christ and not Jupiter. As Antipasti' faith grew stronger he soon found himself protesting against the gladiatorial events. He discovered that his Christian brother, Demerits, was to be murdered and decided that he could not allow such an act to happen. Antipasti sacrificed himself for Demerits and was killed in his place by being earned alive. The reader knows that Antipasti sacrificed himself for what he believed in, all for the glory of God.I found it quite interesting that Antipasti had grown so passionate and loyal to the Christian religion in such a short time period. He made himself aware and educated and joined the other Christians in faith even though he knew they were highly unaccepted in their culture. He opened himself up to a new way of life and left behind his old beliefs that he stood by for years. Was amazing how Antipasti could grow so loyal to a religion he jus t learned of, than o one he had been worshipping most of his life.He grew so loving and faithful toward his new Christian beliefs that he was willing to die for another man and for a God he had just started to follow. Issues discussed in today's modern culture consists of many people believing that Christians are harassed for their beliefs and persecuted for their worships. However, whatever conflict they encounter today has no comparison to the effects of being Christian in the first century. Today there are many Christians but few who actually have a strong passion for the Gospel.There are thousands of people today who are proud to call themselves Christians, but would there still be as much if the consequences were still being beaten or murdered in front of a crowd? Does the passion of Christ lit inside of Antipasti still exist in any Christian today? Although the story was fictional, the portrayal of the first century was accurate. There were many people like Antipasti who were killed for standing up for their beliefs; perhaps the message here is for all modern day Christians to reevaluate the way they're following Christ, and to use Antipasti' passion and loyalty as an example to live by.

Victoria’s Secret Pink: Keeping the Brand Hip

Case 6 Victoria’s Secret Pink: Keeping the Brand Hip As consumers, we pay attention to what is hip and trendy in the marketplace as it relates to fashion. Advertising plays a large role in the fashion decisions made by adults and pre-adults alike. For instance, advertisers for Victoria Secret have done a brilliant job of creating an association with the Victoria Secret brand and the visual image of lingerie that immediately comes to mind. They do this by using famous super models to market their signature bras, panties and sleepwear. This association is then projected back on the consumer, who begins to believe that they can be just a seductive as the Victoria Secret supermodels if they purchase this lingerie. A dilemma that may arise from this is that sometimes ethical boundary lines may become blurred or even crossed when advertisers try to establish a target audience. In an effort to generate profits, companies may be putting themselves at risk by targeting audiences that are too young for their sexually charged merchandise. . Analyze the buyer decision process of a typical Pink customer. The typical Pink customer is a young and fashionable woman that enjoys comfortable clothing. For women who may think that the Victoria Secret line is too racy or sexy for them, the Pink line offers a casual alternative that allows young women to feel cute and playful. The Pink brand is typically associated with and is characterized as an â€Å"approach† product, which is a product that provides a consumer a form of enj oyment. A typical Pink consumer uses personal influences to make purchase decisions. For example, this line of clothing is basically geared toward college coeds, who are usually seen sporting â€Å"loungewear† in daily life. Pink consumers are able to take their personal sense of style to the next level by wearing clothing that better suits their personalities. In this line, loungewear has been redefined by the use of bright colors, stripes and polka-dots; the line reflects personalities that are more fun. Likewise, lifestyle and social class play a large role in buyer decision. Pink customers are fortunate enough to be able to afford to spend their disposable income on fashion forward brands such as these. Lastly, â€Å"age and life stage† impacts buyer decision. The intended target audiences for the Pink brand are women between the ages of 18 through 30 , which includes the later part of Generation X and most of Generation Y. This subculture perceives themselves as young and will dress accordingly and make a fashion statement with the popular Pink brand. The women in this target group who are interested in being fashionable will look to societal requirements of them when making fashion decisions. If they know their age group is being targeted by the Pink advertisers and they think that Pink is hip and stylish, they will likely be influenced to buy it. Consumers wearing modern clothing products tend to feel better about themselves and perceive themselves as conforming to modern times. 2. Apply the concept of aspirational groups to Victoria Secret’s Pink line. Should marketers have boundaries with regard to this concept? Victoria Secret has positioned the Pink line in a way that it will target young consumers through their entry-level product so that they continue to be loyal customers and purchase the Victoria Secret brand as they age. Marketers have an ethical and social responsibility to ensure that they are not marketing to a young target age group if the product poses an inherent health risk or is sexually charged. Such is the case with the tobacco companies. Their advertisements were indirectly gaining the attention of minors. I believe that Victoria Secret is not exploiting younger age groups with their Pink line. Even if tweens are interested in the product, there is little cause for concern since the line is intended to be cute and playful, rather than sexy. Unfortunately, because of age compression, children are doing away with childlike images at a much earlier age. The need to grow up is very visible when it comes to fashion. For this reason, marketers need to be diligent in making sure that they target and advertise to the appropriate age group. In this day and age we place blame on the fashion industry and manufactures for the skimpy clothing products that are introduced to the market place and essentially to our children. Although there is some truth to this, we must not minimize the essential role that parents need to play in ensuring that the boundaries for their children are met. 3. Explain how both the positive and negative consumer attitudes toward a brand like Pink develop? How might someone’s attitude toward Pink change? From a positive side, consumers can relate more to the Pink product line as the clothing is characterized as â€Å"loungewear† which is comfortable and easy to wear. The consumers are presented with new Pink products every three to four weeks. This in turn keeps customers satisfied with being able to have the latest and greatest attire. Positive consumer attitudes are formed by customer satisfaction with the product. If the customers’ expectations are exceeded, then they are said to have a positive outcome. Positive customer experience will lead to customers being loyal and making repeat purchases. Satisfied customers will in turn be advocates and refer their friends to the Pink line. Negative consumer attitudes are formed when there is dissatisfaction with the product purchased. These customers will most likely never purchase the product again due to their initial poor experience. A customer’s attitude towards Pink may change due to some misunderstanding. For example a loyal customer may change their opinion of the company not due to the product, but because of poor customer service. This in turn can persuade the customer to purchase from somewhere else. As a business, you need to create and maintain strong customer relationships. It is easier to keep current customers than to attract new ones. 4. What role does Pink appear to be playing in the self-concept of tweens, teens, and young adults? Pink appears to be having a positive influence on the self-concept of young adults. It is not always necessary to look sexy in order to feel good about yourself. Young adult women can look good and feel comfortable at the same time with the Pink line of clothing. Let’s face it, not all women love the way they look naked; the Pink brand allows them to feel as though they are wearing something young, hip and attractive without having to compete with the supermodels that wear the Victoria Secret line. The tweens and teens are being influenced by external forces such as the media, and by their social groups into wearing the Pink Label. Tweens and teens want to conform to societal expectations and will take any step necessary to accomplish this such as wearing adult clothing in order to fit in and be part of the hip, trendy crowd. Some parents may think that the Pink clothing line may be slightly risky or too provocative for this age group. Though selling to this age group may be a positive economic benefit for Pink, it may tarnish Pink’s corporate social image. Parents do not want to see their children dressing beyond their years. Bad publicity may cause customers to boycott the Pink brand and possibly the Victoria Secret’s products as well. References: Hickling, J. , & Miller, C. (2008). Cigarette pack and advertising displays at point of purchase: community demand for restrictions. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 32(6), 574-578. doi:10. 1111/j. 1470-6431. 2008. 00694. x. Court, D. , Elzinga, D. , Mulder, S. , & Vetvik, O. (2009). The consumer decision journey. McKinsey Quarterly, (3), 96-107. Retrieved from Business Source Elite database. Kotler, P. , & Armstrong, G. (2010). Victoria’s Secret Pink: Keeping the Brand Hip. In Principles of Marketing (Thirteenth ed. , pp. 12-13). Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Creed, W. , Scully, M. , & Austin, J. (2002). Clothes Make the Person? The Tailoring of Legitimating Accounts and the Social Construction of Identity. Organization Science, 13(5), 475-496. Retrieved from Business Source Elite database.

Darwinian Fundamentalism Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Darwinian Fundamentalism - Term Paper Example However, this was not the crux of the battle that ensued between scientists and the church. Christians have traditionally believed that the origin of life traces back to the creation of Earth along with all the life forms by God, roughly 6000 years ago. Meanwhile, the scientists argue that the origin of life can be dated to millions of years ago, when life began to evolve by the process of natural selection. Besides the age of life-forms on earth, the most important clash between the two groups have been over the fact that according to the theory of evolution, life originated from completely inorganic sources, so to speak, from some complex chemical reaction of sorts, millions of years ago. In the course of this paper, I would like to examine the fundamental principles of both the sides also look into a rather interesting battle that has arisen amongst the scientists themselves. This concerns a Harvard Professor’s criticism certain supporters of the theory of evolution and his attempt to bring religion and science into coexsitance. Creationism ‘Creationism’ can be described in the simplest words as, a Doctrine or Theory holding that matter, the various forms of life and the world were created by god out of nothing, in the manner mentioned in the Genesis.1 The theory also stresses upon the centrality of God as the controller of everything. It describes God as omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient. This is by far one of the few concurring ideas across different faiths which have represented God and his identity in different forms. They all subscribe to the belief that God has power over everything. They view him as the ‘Supreme Power’ who is both the creator and destroyer. According to the King James Bible, the Genesis, God created heaven and earth in the beginning, in a period of six days. Day 1: God said â€Å"let there be light†, and there was light. Day 2: God sad, let the waters under the heaven be gathered together u nto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so. Day 3: And God said, let the earth bring forth grass and the fruit tree yield fruit. Day 4: And God created great every living creature. Day 5: And God said, Go forth and multiply each living creature after his kind: and it was so. Day 6: And God said, Let us make man in our image and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air and every other thing that moved on earth. Creationists also stress on the divine nature of the Genesis and therefore place it on higher merit than Science. Some Creationists have gone to the extent of denouncing all forms of science and blatantly disregard all scientific evidences. The primary reason behind this strong dichotomy is the fact that Science in itself questions the existence of god for want of evidence and proof. Therefore, in most circumstances, there is a logical deduction that science and atheism are on the same page, so to speak. Creationists strongly back faith over the reasons given by science, stating that if it is in the bible then it must be true. This strong belief system has over time ‘evolved’ into a cult of sorts, which has adapted with the changing arguments of the evolutionists. For instance, by 1920, some of the creationists had managed to ban the teaching of Darwinism in schools, which gave rise to the famous ‘

Briefing paper on population aging to inform the new intake of Public Essay

Briefing paper on population aging to inform the new intake of Public Health Officers in Department - Essay Example There are mainly two demographic factors that determined the rate and pace of population aging. These are decline in fertility rate and the decline in mortality rate at older ages. As the rate of both fertility and mortality has declined significantly in the last decade and is expected to show more significant pattern in this century, so the process of population aging maintain the stability concerning the population growth. However, the process of population aging is getting more speed and significance by the fall in morality rate more than the fall in fertility rate. Since the fall in fertility actually prevents the birth of new allies in the earth and the fall in mortality rate of the older persons actually increasing their relative size, so this process ultimately leads to an increase in share of older persons in the world population. This process has continued since 1950 and results in decrease in mortality rate with an increasing pace even for the very old (more than 85 years) population, especially in the context of female population. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, by 2016, the number old population of New South Wales (65 years and more) is projected to outgrow the number of its child population (0-14 years). The Bureau has estimated that share of older population will increase to 20% of the total population of NSW by the end of 2023. We have shown the trend of percentage share of the child group (0-14 years), aged group (65 to 84 years) and more aged group (85 and above) in the total growth of population in case of NSW by the figure-1. However, there may be another factor that has some effect on the aging of the population. This is the consequence of migration. Process of immigration generally reduces the population aging since mainly the younger persons are the immigrants. But on the other hand, the process of emigration tends to

Pressure on students Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pressure on students - Research Paper Example The students may end up in unfair practices because of the pressure that is being imposed upon them. In several instances it is seen that the students have cheated for their exams so that they can achieve better grades. In other words pressure is causing the students to go through ethical dilemmas which they otherwise may not go through. Similarly it is also found that the students undergo anxiety because of the pressure that they feel. Moreover in exams the students may not be able to perform well because of this very pressure. It has been argued by many that this pressure can create many difficulties for the students and this aspect would be further analyzed in this essay (Welch et al 2007). Students are pressurized by parents mostly to perform better so that they can achieve good grades. But this pressure has been directly linked to the anxiety found in the students. This anxiety can further affect the results of the students in a special environment. It has been found that studen ts who are anxious when giving a test tend to perform lower than the ones who have not been informed. In other words the students who tend to be pressurized about a test perform lower than the ones who are not pressurized about it. Another process of ‘catastrophizing’ may occur when the students fear the consequences of the test before even attempting it. This again is a process through which the students are pressurized and this affects the grades of the students. In other words high pressure can affect the grades of the students negatively rather than positively (Welch et al 2007). During the student life it is seen that the students have to undergo a lot of pressure from parents and peers. A study conducted showed that students of both genders were under pressure from their peers during their school life. It is because of this that the students have to undergo a great deal of pressure and this affects their grading. Students who undergo pressure cannot withstand it a t times and they undergo other social problems while trying to achieve better grades (Gewertz 2005). Pressure on students is enforced by the parents and peers so that they can achieve good grades. Professor Eric Roberts has blamed the norm of getting higher grades a primary problem which increases plagiarism and cheating in academic institutions. It has been found that the pressure inflicted upon the students by parents and peers leads to a greater level of stress amongst the students. The problem has become so bad that the stress levels have also been indicated to be a health epidemic. It has also been found that because of the stress levels the students tend to forget the ethical values that are involved in education. A lecturer Clark Pope stated that â€Å"The students "know [cheating] is wrong; they tell me they wish they didn't do it†¦."But they feel like the most important thing they do is get the grades, by hook or by crook." This clearly shows that to achieve higher gr ades the students forget their ethical limits and get involved in the practice of cheating. Achieving higher grades has become a norm for every student and this should be somehow removed from the minds of the students. The students on one hand are able to achieve higher grades but on the other hand the ethical problems are on the rise and this can be accounted to the pressures that these students are facing (Palmer 2005). The problem of peer and parent pressure in students has increased so much that Stanford

Carry out a critical and comparative analysis of early chidhood Essay

Carry out a critical and comparative analysis of early chidhood education and care in the united kingdom and Denmark or Sweden - Essay Example Different areas of early education will be critically analyzed, and a concluding solution will also be given. Statements supporting different early education systems will also be provided along with its limitations. Differences in curriculum, welfare, readiness for school, learning for school and construction of early education institutions will be discussed. How childhood is constructed in both these areas will be the main discussion, in which different arguments will be supported or refuted using various sources. When two years of age, a child starts developing attachment with parents or guardian. Therefore, early childhood care and education carries great importance. At the same time, the child starts learning after he is seven months of age. Thus, providing children with right blend of education and care in early ages can help mould them in well educated and nurtured individuals. UK and Sweden, both countries provide pre-school nursing and education. However, differences lie in other factors such as curriculum, structure, welfare, family care and society. Comparative analysis is made of both the countries based on various articles by BBC, national and UNESCO reports, national surveys, journals and views/comments and articles of residents of UK and Sweden. Reports and surveys by authorized and trusted sources are used as they are authentic. While articles of residents and their views are considered as they provide first hand knowledge. Where national reports have a tendency to be biased, articles by individuals are expected to show a more realistic picture. While carrying out Comparative analysis, difficulties are involved, such as authenticity, relevance and contradictions among different sources. Some case studies used are quite old and there relevance maybe questioned, however, they are used in order to support other arguments. Childcare in Sweden makes up the children belonging to the

The U.S. Taiwan Trade relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The U.S. Taiwan Trade relations - Essay Example However, the U.S. policy towards the ROC had a major change in 1979 and shifted its diplomatic recognition from ROC to the People’s Republic of China (PRC). But the friendship between the peoples of the United States and ROC continued unofficially and maintained its commercial, cultural, and other major relations. Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) was enacted on March 1979 by U.S. Congress that further strengthened association between the ROC and the United States. The TRA specifies that the United States has to provide Taiwan with necessary defense materials and defense services to protect the country (Taiwan-U.S. Relations 2006). The recognition of People’s Republic of China (PRC) as the legal Chinese government has become the key issue towards the status of Taiwan and U.S. foreign policy. The U.S. policy towards the PRC changed and expanded the economic and political relations with them. Taiwan has become democratic country in the year 2000. In the mean times Taiwan-U.S. relations have suffered set back mainly because of the mistrust between the Bush and Chen administrations; a decline of Taiwan’s willingness to satisfy U.S. prospect about its own self-defense; the breakup of the once-powerful status of Taiwan in the United States; the declining position for Congress; and the utter instability in Taiwan’s domestic political setting. All these transformations are posing challenge to U.S. policy. Since both Taiwan and PRC are involved, the present U.S. policy needs to be reexamined or discarded. But others observe that the very reliability of the U.S. policy structure is vital in running U.S. dealings with both countries and it is to be maintained. Under these circumstances it is suggested that a clear U.S. policy and open relations with Taiwan leaders; maximum U.S. support for Taiwan’s involvement in global institutions; put more pressure on the PRC for discussion to the elected Taiwan government, and give up the use of force; and more

Has building a fence along the US Mexico border help fight illegal Term Paper

Has building a fence along the US Mexico border help fight illegal immigration - Term Paper Example Since centuries, immigration has remained one of the most important issues legally, as well as politically due to the division of globe into developed and developing countries that inclines huge waves of people to emigrate from one place to another for their brighter future. However, in this process, it has been an observation that besides emigrating legally, documented evidence has indicated numerous occasions when huge number of people has crossed borders illegally due to various reasons, which has resulted in the notion of illegal immigration. In particular, every country confronts the issue of illegal immigration; however, statistics have indicated that USA-Mexico border is the platform that witnesses highest number of illegal crossings of the border in comparison to other parts of the globe, which results in various adverse outcomes. For instance, experts have indicated that illegal immigration causes many unfavorable effects on USA, and although many individuals and families cr oss US-Mexico border with no intention of carrying out criminal activities and purely for their brighter future, still, their illegal crossing causes impact on economy and social order of the USA . Since many years, USA has been putting efforts to reduce and eliminate activities of the illegal immigration on the US-Mexico border, and that has been putting a huge burden on the US government’s spending, still, thousands of people cross this border annually.In the result, US Congress and immigration experts came up with the idea of building a high-tech fence along the US-Mexico border, which has already resulted in huge debate and the idea has received mixed responses. The basic plan is to build â€Å"a 2,000-mile fence along the US-Mexico border and this has been the proposal of Duncan Hunter, the Chairman of the House Armed Services Committee†3. In order to understand whether this fence will be helpful in fighting illegal immigration, it is very imperative to understand what it will look like. In this regard, reports have indicated that it will be a combination of â€Å"barbed wire, powerful wire fences, high-technological sensors, and a path for border patrol veh icles, CCTV cameras, and movement detectors†4. As of the year 2010, the US government was successful in building approximately 640 miles of this 2,000-miles fence, and the construction is still in process. Building of such a high-tech complicated wall/fence seems very effective in curbing illegal immigration; however, this is not as simple as it looks, and various factors play a crucial role that will allow us to understand the different effects of US-Mexico border fence. In brief, analysis has shown that construction of this fence has resulted in significant reduction in the rate of illegal immigrants. For instance, San Diego was first location for construction of pilot project of this fence, and it was a 14-mile fence in the California district5. Reports indicate that the project showed successful results as the number of illegal immigrants dropped from â€Å"202,000 in the year 1992 to only nine thousand in the year 2004†6 that indicates the effective outcomes of thi s fence. On the other hand, experts have indicated that although location of the fences has reduced the activities of illegal immigration; however, locations at the end of fence has become a platform for individuals and cartels to carry out the activities of illegal immigration in more organized manner that has been a new problem due to this fence. Furthermore, in order to respond to this construction of fence, there seem two major arguments. Firstly, it has been an understanding that although the fences have been successful in restricting the illegal immigrants; however, the construction of fence has caused uneasiness and apprehension on both sides of

Race Relations in the United States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Race Relations in the United States - Essay Example For example, we know that by definition a species is essentially composed of organisms with the same number and pairs of chromosomes. This is also true for human beings. We are all within one species though gene expression and allele acquisition from parents, may differ slightly throughout populations. The old saying â€Å"knowledge is power† is incredibly useful in this explanation as we are living in a time where there is little room for the arguments of the past which served to segregate human beings based on the color of their skin. Due to recent scientific breakthroughs of the past twenty years, we now know skin color is little more than a variation of the amount of melanin (skin pigmentation) which an individual happens to produce or express. Science has given us the power of knowledge which reminds us that quantitative and non subjective data is indisputable and will permanently outlast any argument which ignorantly tries to suggest that human beings are not created or evolved equally. Race relations of the present in the United States are certainly not perfect but are progressively evolving with time. The genome project as well as other evolutions of contemporary knowledge has essentially laid the foundation for a society which is more inclined to frown upon those who hold strongly to racist ideology and belief systems, rather than to frown on varying cultures or ethnicities. We are living in a sociological and political climate which embraces knowledge, education and information. Because of this, the marginal.

Jacqueline Kennedy as a Writer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Jacqueline Kennedy as a Writer - Research Paper Example Historians agree that in this phase of her life she was independent of men and learned to make it on her own embarking on her editing career after twenty-two years without employment. Her husbands had both died and her children were busy at school. In the weeks near her death, she read the manuscript, edited the book and sent a fax to the author detailing suggestions to be edited and possible direction for the conclusion. She did this despite her poor health and grave illness (Spoto 24). Jacqueline Kennedy was born as Jacqueline Lee Bouvier in July 1929. She attended the George Washington University, where she graduated in 1951. Soon after graduation, she was employed as a photo-journalist by the Washington Times Herald. She married John F. Kennedy, a senator who became United States president in 1961. Andersen affirms that â€Å"After the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963, she vacated the white house and moved with her children (Caroline and John Jr.) to New York† (2). After a period of mourning and notable absence from the public scene, she married A Greek shipping magnate, Aristotle Onassis in 1968, who had a son, from a previous marriage, named Alexander. In 1973 his son was killed in a tragic plane crash. Months of depression led to deteriorating health and Aristotle succumbed to his ill health in 1975. Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis was a widow for the second time. She moved permanently to New York and sought employment in publishing as an escape from the ill-fated turn of events in her life. Her career choice was in synchronization with her passion and enjoyment of literature and undergraduate major (French Literature). Her children were old enough and therefore required less attention and time demand. Jacqueline could accord more time to her work. She was a talented writer as well as passionate about literature. Kuhn states that â€Å"though people often didn’t realize it, Jackie was talented and her teachers had noted her abilities early in her life.  

Assessment and Learner Essay Example for Free

Assessment and Learner Essay This discussion paper is part of a series being published and disseminated by the Office of the Queensland School Curriculum Council. The purpose of this series is to encourage discussion on various issues concerning assessment and reporting. Teacher observation is one of several types of assessment techniques recommended by the Council in its Position and Guidelines on Assessment and Reporting for Years 1 to 10 and in its syllabus documents for the key learning areas. Other assessment techniques include consultation, focused analysis, peer assessment and self-assessment. The Position and Guidelines state that: ‘Observation involves teachers in observing students as they participate in planned activities. Teacher observation occurs continually as a natural part of the learning and teaching process and can be used to gather a broad range of information about students’ demonstrations of learning outcomes’ (p. 16). Teacher observation has been valued as an important assessment technique in the lower primary school, but has in the past received less attention in later year levels. Secondary schools especially have favoured formal testing and structured assessment tasks rather than in-situ observation, although there has been some movement towards in-situ observation in some subjects in recent years, even in the senior years. The Council’s Position and Guidelines and syllabus documents elevate teacher observation to a more prominent position in the range of assessment techniques that teachers might use. Other techniques have been identified as consultation and focused analysis as well as peer and self-assessment. Focused analysis includes more formal assessment procedures such as set tests and set tasks. However, these categories of assessment techniques are not necessarily distinct. For example, as this paper explains, observation may be employed in association with focused analysis, especially where what is observed is student performance on a set task. This discussion paper is not an official policy statement of the Council. Rather, it represents the views of the author, Dr Graham Maxwell, of the School of Education, The University of Queensland. As such, it offers a personal perspective on the issues. Dr Maxwell has been involved in research and consultation on assessment for many years in Australia, USA and UK, ranging over all sectors and levels of education. He has taught courses and conducted workshops on assessment for pre-service and in-service teachers for 30 years. He has also been involved in recent Council deliberations on assessment and reporting. The audience for this discussion paper is professional educators, especially schoolteachers and administrators who must deal with assessment and reporting practice in classrooms and schools. Such people already know a great deal about assessment and reporting theories and practices, and this discussion paper builds on that knowledge. The hope is that the discussion paper will serve as a basis for professional debate, development workshops and collaborative planning. iii The Office of the Council would be pleased to have your reactions to and comments on the discussion paper, as well as any examples of ways in which the discussion paper may have helped to clarify or resolve any theoretical or practical problems you are facing in the implementation of Council syllabuses. These reactions, comments and examples would assist the Office of the Council in deciding what further assistance it might be able to provide on these issues. JE Tunstall Director Queensland School Curriculum Council October 2001 iv CONTENTS Preface Introduction Arguments for valuing teacher observation Collection and recording of evidence Planning for teacher observation Factors affecting validity of teacher observations and what to do about them 1. Prejudgments and prejudices 2. Selective perception 3. Providing inadvertent clues 4. Inappropriate inference 5. Inconsistency Conclusion Some useful references on teacher observation iii 1 2 5 7 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 14 v Teacher Observation in Student Assessment INTRODUCTION Teacher observation is one of the assessment techniques recommended in the Position and Guidelines on Assessment and Reporting for Years 1 to 10 of the Queensland School Curriculum Council (the Council). For the implementation of Council syllabuses, assessment is seen as involving a variety of school-based (teacher-enacted) techniques for profiling student demonstrations of learning outcomes. Teacher observation, that is, observation of a student by a teacher, is one of those techniques. It can be used in conjunction with other techniques. 1 Teacher observation has been accepted readily in the past as a legitimate source of information for recording and reporting student demonstrations of learning outcomes in early childhood education. As the student progresses to later years of schooling, less and less attention typically is given to teacher observation and more and more attention typically is given to formal assessment procedures involving required tests and tasks taken under explicit constraints of context and time. However, teacher observation is capable of providing substantial information on student demonstration of learning outcomes at all levels of education. For teacher observation to contribute to valid judgments concerning student learning outcomes, evidence needs to be gathered and recorded systematically. Systematic gathering and recording of evidence requires preparation and foresight. This does not necessarily mean that all aspects of the process of observation need to be anticipated but that the approach taken is deliberate rather than happenstance. It is necessary, at least, to know in advance both what kinds of learning outcomes are anticipated and how evidence will be recorded. Adequate records are essential for good assessment. Teacher observation can be characterised as two types: incidental and planned. †¢ Incidental observation occurs during the ongoing (deliberate) activities of teaching and learning and the interactions between teacher and students. In other words, an unplanned opportunity emerges, in the context of classroom activities, where the teacher observes some aspect of individual student learning. Whether incidental observation can be used as a basis for formal assessment and reporting may depend on the records that are kept. Planned observation involves deliberate planning of an opportunity for the teacher to observe specific learning outcomes. This planned opportunity may occur in the context of regular classroom activities or may occur through the setting of an assessment task (such as a practical or performance activity). 2 †¢ 1 2 Other possibilities for collecting evidence by observation exist, including observations by another teacher, observations by other students, and student self-observation. This paper concentrates on teacher observation and does not consider these additional forms of observation. Ultimately, the teacher must judge the validity and relevance of all forms of evidence, so these alternative forms of evidence involve similar principles of assessment to those applicable to other forms of evidence, including teacher observation. ‘Classroom’ should be interpreted liberally. It may include settings outside the school, such as field excursions, public presentations and work experience. What matters is the presence of an assessor, typically the teacher, to observe and record the event. 1 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting ARGUMENTS FOR VALUING TEACHER OBSERVATION Teacher observation is an important but underutilised assessment technique. It is sometimes argued that teachers are unable to make appropriate and dependable assessment judgments from observations of students in natural settings. The table (below) details some of the claims of this viewpoint, together with some relevant rebuttals. Handled carefully, teacher observations can provide important evidence for assessment judgments. In some cases, they provide the only way of obtaining evidence about particular learning outcomes, especially those involving practical techniques, performance activities, ‘real life’ projects and group work. Table 1: Arguments against teacher observations and rebuttals of those arguments Arguments against teacher observations Lack of representativeness Students may not demonstrate all relevant learning outcomes in natural settings. They may know or know how but the context may not prompt them to demonstrate this. Lack of observation Teachers may not observe the demonstration of a learning outcome when it occurs, either because their attention is els ewhere or because they fail to recognise it. Lack of control of influences The student can derive unintended cues and prompts from the setting, even from the teacher, and these can be unnoticed by the teacher. Student performance may then be misinterpreted. Lack of standardisation All students do not undertake the same tasks under the same conditions. Teacher judgments of student demonstrations of learning outcomes are therefore undependable. Lack of objectivity Teacher judgments are subjective and prone to inconsistencies. Too much is left to the discretion of the teacher. Possibility of stereotyping Subjective judgments allow the possibility of stereotyping of students in terms of other performances or characteristics. Possibility of bias Subjective judgments allow the possibility of conscious or unconscious bias for or against particular individuals or groups. Rebuttal of those arguments Learning outcomes that have not been demonstrated can be deliberately prompted. Assessment should be planned as well as incidental. Teachers can ensure that assessment is comprehensive. Over time, teachers have many opportunities for observation. It is not critical if particular opportunities for observation are missed. Some observation is deliberate and focused. No single occasion is sufficient for judging a student’s demonstration of learning outcomes. Multiple opportunities and a variety of contexts allow cross-checking the robustness of the student’s performance. Quality requirements for teacher judgments are ‘evidence-based’ and ‘defensible’. Tailoring and adaptation allow optimum student performance and holistic interpretation of the evidence (taking contextual factors into consideration). All assessment involves sequences of subjective decisions; mechanistic marking schemes reflect earlier design decisions. Procedures to strengthen and verify teacher judgments can be introduced. Stereotyping is not inevitable. Each assessment occasion can be approached as a fresh opportunity to test hypotheses derived from prior impressions. Conscious bias is unethical. Unconscious bias requires constant vigilance. It is difficult for bias to survive evidence-based justification to students and their parents (a form of accountability). 2 Teacher Observation in Student Assessment An important argument in support of teacher observation is that teachers have access to a rich and diverse range of evidence on student learning outcomes from observations of their students; and that the capability of teachers to collect and interpret this range of evidence should be respected. Otherwise, a rich source of evidence on student learning outcomes is being ignored. In any case, the issue is not whether teacher observations should be used — since they are necessarily used informally during teaching — but how teacher judgments can be strengthened and improved so that they can be used for formal purposes, especially for reporting and certification. A strong justification for using teacher observation in assessment is its capacity to enhance assessment validity. By extending the range of possible assessments, teacher observation allows assessment to be more: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ comprehensive — ensuring recognition of all desired learning outcomes, especially those not otherwise assessable than in classroom contexts; connected — situated within familiar learning contexts and closely related to curriculum frameworks, learning experiences and pedagogical planning; contextualised — sensitive to the effects of context on performance and deriving assessment evidence from a variety of situations and occasions; authentic — interesting, challenging, worthwhile and meaningful to students; holistic — emphasising relatedness and connections in learning and involving performance on complex wholes rather than separate components. All of these characteristics can be supported as important for high quality learning and assessment. Assessments with these characteristics have better representation of, clearer relevance to, and stronger consequences for desirable learning outcomes. Appropriate representation, relevance and consequences are often now recognised as the requirements of valid assessments. Past practice in assessment, particularly in secondary schools, has not accorded much recognition to teacher observation for formal purposes. Some people have argued that while teacher observation is necessarily a component of classroom teaching, a clear distinction should be made between informal and formal assessment. For example, some educators argue that assessment situations should not be confused with learning activities. 3 This draws too firm a distinction. Certainly, there should not be strong accountability for first attempts. Also, reports need to indicate the progress made by students at the time of reporting. However, a firm  distinction between assessment situations and learning activities stems from over3 This is argued by Caroline Gipps in her book, Beyond Testing: Towards a Theory of Educational Assessment, The Falmer Press, London, 1994. 3 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting concern for comparison and ranking. Where the aim is to map the student’s profile of demonstrated learning outcomes, standardised comparison is not the issue. The question is simply what justifiable evidence is there for concluding that the student has demonstrated a particular learning outcome. This does not require students to be ‘tested’ under controlled — and artificial — conditions. An alternative vision is one where assessment becomes incidental to and indistinguishable from learning activities. This allows for the strongest connection between pedagogy and assessment and, as already argued, a strengthening of the quality of the learning and the validity of the assessment. It can be argued that unless there is a strong connection between pedagogy and assessment, the assessment will be disembodied and discriminatory, that is, unconnected to any means for improving student learning and privileging students with existing cultural capital. Such an approach focuses on the student’s best performance over time and values the progress they are making (similar to ‘personal best’ in athletics). Howard Gardner puts it this way: ‘Rather than being imposed â€Å"externally† at odd times during the year, assessment ought to become part of the natural learning environment. As much as possible it should occur â€Å"on the fly†, as part of an individual’s natural engagement in a learning situation. Initially, the assessment would have to be introduced explicitly; but after a while, much assessment would occur naturally on the part of student and teacher, with little need for explicit recognition or labelling on anyone’s part. †¦ As assessment gradually becomes part of the landscape, it no longer needs to be set off from the rest of classroom activity. As in a good apprenticeship, the teachers and the students are always assessing. There is also no need to â€Å"teach for the assessment† because the assessment is ubiquitous; indeed, the need for formal tests might atrophy altogether. ’ 4 4 ‘Assessment in context: The alternative to standardized testing’, in B. R. Gifford M. C. O’Connor (Eds), Changing assessments: Alternative views of aptitude, achievement and instruction (pp. 78119), London, Kluwer, 1992. 4 Teacher Observation in Student Assessment COLLECTION AND RECORDING OF EVIDENCE All assessment requires the collection and recording of evidence of student learning. For the implementation of Council syllabuses, it has been recommended that the evidence focus on the demonstration of learning outcomes. Evidence is documentation that records, illustrates or confirms student demonstrations of learning outcomes. Collection and recording of evidence is necessary for two reasons: accountability — justification of the assessment judgments; and verification — confirmation of the assessment judgments. Accountability and verification are key factors in assuring the quality of assessments. †¢ †¢ Accountability (justification) means being able to explain and defend assessment judgments to students, their parent(s) and other teachers. Verification (confirmation) means being able to revisit the foundations for assessment judgments — being able to check their completeness, relevance and veracity. Teacher observations are primarily directed at the observation of events, performances and activities. In some cases, an artefact may be produced as a consequence of the event, performance or activity. In other cases, no artefact is produced and the event, performance or process iself is the sole focus of attention. An artefact is something constructed by the t student, for example, a worksheet, a piece of writing, a design, a painting, a composition, a webpage — in other words, a product of some kind. Teacher observation is not primarily concerned with the artefact itself but with the way in which the artefact was produced, that is, with the process. 5 Evidence of process, whether or not there is a resultant artefact, may involve either direct record or written record. These two types of record have different characteristics. A direct record keeps a ‘trace’ of the event through an audio-recording, a video-recording or a sequence of photographs. The activity or event might be, for example, a speech, a dramatic presentation, a group activity or a practical task. The term ‘trace’ emphasises that the record is not the same as the event itself. At best, it allows some features of the event to be represented and recalled. Some features of the event may be lost, such as the ‘feel’ of the occasion or the ‘spark’ between presenter and audience. Some features of the event may be filtered or distorted by the medium of recording, for example, through positioning and handling of the 5 In some cases, a sequence of artefacts may be produced and these may provide a progressive record of stages of production. These could involve, for example, a sequence of written drafts, initial designs, trial compositions, or tentative frameworks. In this case, the artefacts indicate milestones of development towards the final product. It is important to keep the total sequence of artefacts, together with annotations about contextual factors, such as the way in which the student has made use of comments and suggestions, so that a complete interpretation of what the student has done can be made. 5 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting recording device. It is important, therefore, to realise that such a record offers only partial representation of the event. Nevertheless, such ‘traces’ are better than having no record at all. A written record can take the form of an observation sheet or a logbook (diary of events). Observation sheets can be more or less structured: at one extreme they contain checklists of learning outcomes; at the other extreme they contain broad categories for writing on-the-spot comments or annotations; and in between these extremes is a combination of them both. 6 A logbook provides a record of critical incidents or key comments (sometimes referred to as an anecdotal record); for accuracy of recall, entries need to be made as soon after the event as possible. The student’s name and the date also need to be clearly recorded. A sequential collection of such records is sometimes called a ‘running record’. When keeping an observation sheet or a logbook, written entries can be (relatively) high inference or (relatively) low inference. ‘High inference’ means that a judgment or interpretation is made, whereas ‘low inference’ means that the specifics of the event are described (without any attempt to interpret what they signify). Thus, using a checklist of core learning outcomes would involve high inference, whereas providing a descriptive account of student performance without direct reference to core learning outcomes could involve low inference. In the latter case, judgments relating to the demonstration of learning outcomes can be delayed until a variety of evidence has been collected. The advantage of low inference observations is that they are more ‘objective’ or ‘transparent’ and can provide a ‘closer-to-the-event’ basis for later verification; the specifics of the event are more easily accessible. The advantage of high inference observations is greater ease and efficiency in record keeping, but the specifics of the event are not then retrievable from the record. It is possible to record both a judgment (high inference) and a description (low inference), thus retaining some of the benefits of each. Descriptive accounts can include written commentary on student performance under specific headings on an observation sheet; critical incidents or significant events recorded in a logbook; and key performance features recorded in a logbook. Critical incidents and significant events are particularly noteworthy instances of the demonstration of particular learning outcomes (or the lack of it), especially those observed for the first time or demonstrated in a particularly dramatic or unexpected way. Key performance features are salient features of an observed performance whether or not they are particularly ‘critical’, including evidence that strengthens or confirms early judgments relating to student demonstrations of learning outcomes. When an artefact, direct record or descriptive account is kept and placed in the student’s assessment portfolio, the artefact, direct record or descriptive account can be referred to again at a later time in order to retrieve the specifics of student performance. This allows assessment judgments to be delayed until a convenient time or allows assessment judgments to be 6. Rating scales are not mentioned here since arbitrary distinctions of quality are not part of the assessment position espoused by the Council. However, the sequences of core learning outcomes (arranged in levels along a developmental continuum) provide quasi-rating scales. It is a matter of convenience and style whether a sequence of core learning outcomes is characterised as a quasi-rating scale (showing where the student is positioned along the developmental continuum) or simply an expanded checklist (showing which core learning outcomes the student has demonstrated). 6 Teacher Observation in Student Assessment verified on a subsequent occasion, for example, for purposes of moderation. It is difficult to verify written records of judgments without an accompanying artefact, direct record or descriptive account as a reference point. 7 Table 2: Summary of types of teacher observation evidence Focus on product — keep artefact(s) Focus on activity — record process †¢ Direct record (‘trace’) o Audio-tape o Video-tape o Photographs Written record o Observation sheet  § Checklist (high inference)  § Description (low inference) o Logbook  § Description of critical incidents  § Description of key performance features †¢ PLANNING FOR TEACHER OBSERVATION Teacher observations cannot be useful without planning. Different types of evidence require different types of planning. An essential requirement for  all types of evidence is anticipating the kinds of learning outcomes that may be demonstrated. This is particularly important where observation is incidental and where judgments (rather than descriptions) are recorded. Council syllabuses provide a framework of learning outcomes that serve as the perceptual reference points for recognising the characteristics of student performance. The framework of learning outcomes makes available to the teacher concepts and language for recognising and describing what a student knows and can do. Learning the structure, language and concepts of the framework therefore is a key aspect of planning for teacher observation, as it is too for teaching. Incidental observation necessarily involves little additional planning, apart from the normal planning of classroom learning activities for students. Incidental observation is opportunistic, 7 Where there is no supporting evidential record for the judgment, verification of the judgment is strictly impossible. The record of judgment needs to be considered in the context of other evidence collected from different times and events. Where it corroborates other evidence, the judgment is strengthened. Where it contradicts other evidence, more evidence may be needed. Ultimately, the weight of evidence is what matters. ‘Other evidence’ could include the judgments of other observers, that is, other records of judgment of the same event. 7 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting  capitalising on revelations of student learning during regular classroom learning activities. In this sense it cannot be planned. It is essentially unanticipated. It can only be recorded through descriptions in a logbook. Although there may sometimes be an artefact to provide corroboration for the teacher’s observation, any process details depend on teacher description. Incidental observation is therefore the weakest form of teacher observation and would preferably be used only as supplementary evidence to support other forms o evidence. f Relying on incidental observation alone would be unsatisfactory (see caveats below). Planned observation can involve planning  for ‘in situ’ observation (in learning situations) or planning for set assessment tasks. There is little to distinguish these two situations in practical terms. However, as assessment becomes more important, particularly in Years 8 to 10, students may need to know when they are being assessed, since they may otherwise choose not to show their actual capabilities. Absence of demonstration of learning outcomes might not indicate incapability of demonstrating those learning outcomes but lack of appropriate challenge or opportunity. Formal assessment occasions would appear to become more important in the secondary school than in the primary school, at least for the present. 8 For all planned observations, whether ‘in situ’ or set tasks, thought needs to be given to how the event and/or the observations will be recorded. Consideration needs to be given to whether a direct record will be kept and what form of observation record will be made. The validity of teacher observations is strengthened by preparing an observation sheet that allows systematic recording of observations and judgments. An observation sheet may include checklists of learning outcomes and/or categories for describing student activities and performances. Learning outcomes might be made more explicit by listing their elaborations, components or criteria, that is, by providing more detail on the characteristics of the desired learning outcome. The advantages of prepared observation sheets include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ opportunity to share learning expectations with students in advance encouragement of student self-monitoring and self-assessment clarification of the desired learning outcomes to guide learning focus on the desired learning outcomes to guide teaching cuing of attention to the full range of relevant learning outcomes having available an explicit and standard recording format ease of recording of student performance characteristics structured means of providing feedback to students. 8 In the long term, taking up Howard Gardner’s vision (see footnote 4), a more natural approach to assessment would require that classrooms become more like normal work environments. This does not necessarily mean that the student (as the worker) is under constant surveillance but that there are  opportunities to demonstrate their capabilities in situations that really matter (but are preferably ‘authentic’ rather than ‘artificial’). The necessary shift in assessment practice to support this is from ‘one-off testing’ to progressive demonstration of ‘best (sustained) performance’. Reformed assessment practice would place more onus on the student to demonstrate the desired learning outcomes (and to indicate when they think they are doing so) together with specific ‘invitations’ to students to demonstrate their level of development in relation to sequences of learning outcomes of increasing complexity. 8 Teacher Observation in Student Assessment  Disadvantages of prepared observation sheets include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the need to allow for several levels of learning outcomes on a single sheet it can be difficult to anticipate all the learning outcomes that might appear it is possible that other serendipitous learning outcomes will be missed students’ learning may be constrained by listed learning outcomes. The disadvantages are outweighed by the advantages. They can be overcome, in any case, by careful design of the observation sheet, tailoring it to the current stage of student development, and allowing space for additional observations to be recorded. Observation sheets should be used as a tentative organising structure for recording teacher observations rather than a limiting framework for the actual observations. Space also needs to be provided on the observation sheet for including descriptive details of the context. These details need to include any characteristics of the setting or the occasion that could have influenced the student’s performance, either positively or negatively, and that might be relevant in making a judgment about whether the student has demonstrated particular learning outcomes. The details can be physical (e. g. , uncomfortable surroundings), psychological (e. g. , personal attributes in stressful situations) or social (e. g. , other events in the life of the school or the student). Through all of this, it must be remembered that any written record  of observations is necessarily selective. Only certain features of student performance are likely to be noticed and can be recorded. Therefore, having a clear understanding and ready access to the framework of expected learning outcomes is essential. One technique for reducing the cognitive demands of open observation is ‘spotlighting’. This means targeting specific learning outcomes (across several levels of a strand) on particular occasions. This has the added advantage of ensuring systematic coverage of all relevant learning outcomes. However, it should not be pursued so religiously that evidence of other learning outcomes outside the spotlighting target is ignored. 9 FACTORS AFFECTING VALIDITY OF TEACHER OBSERVATIONS AND WHAT TO DO ABOUT THEM Teacher observations will be valid to the extent that the evidence is appropriately recorded and interpreted, that is, whether: †¢ †¢ the recorded evidence accurately represents the observed student performance the interpretation (judgment) of this evidence is justifiable. Accurate recording requires transparent and unbiased perception of the student’s performance. Justifiable interpretation requires careful consideration of what the student’s performance signifies, in terms of learning outcomes, taking into consideration any factors 9 Margaret Forster and Geoff Masters discuss ‘spotlighting’ in Performances: Assessment resource kit, Camberwell, Victoria, Australian Council for Educational Research, 1996. 9 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting that may have influenced the performance. The use of the term ‘justifiable’ here emphasises that there may not be a single unequivocal interpretation of the evidence but rather that the interpretation should withstand challenge as being reasonable and defensible. There also may be a requirement that the interpretation be consistent with the interpretations of other teachers. 10 The following discussion covers some factors that can affect the accuracy of the recorded evidence or the justifiability of the interpretation or both.

The Youth In Christian Leadership

The Youth In Christian Leadership You are the light of the world. A city on a hill cannot be hidden. This is one of many ways that Jesus describes the bold contrast between Christians and the rest of the world. It is a difference that should be as clear as night and day, but rarely is the case with Christians in the world nowadays. Most non-believers use words such as hypocritical, sheltered, and judgmental to describe Christians. (Kinnaman, 2007) The very things that Christ warned us not to become are the exact same things we are viewed as today. One of the biggest reasons for the skepticism of Christianity today is the ignorance of our own faith. Believers are not getting into the word, and it shows in society. Many Christians cannot answer basic questions when asked about their faith, and even if they can, many are not living out those beliefs. (Kinnaman, 2007) Ignoring our faith has led to a religion of mixed up morals and hypocrites, and has largely contributed to the scorn towards Christianity. These vices are slowly being passed down from the modern adults of today to the developing Christian youth. It is therefore paramount to look for avenues to reverse this situation and get back to inspiring hope in a culture full of cynicism. This will enable us to form a platform for Christian leadership among our youth. Christian leadership as a virtue comes in many forms and traits. A leader is a dealer in hope. (Napoleon Bonaparte) On the other hand, according to (Means, 2000), servant leadership is a leadership philosophy that implies a comprehensive view of the quality of people, work and community spirit. Servant leadership greatly requires a spiritual understanding of identity, mission, vision and the environment. (Greenleaf, 2012) A servant leader is one who is servant first, who has responsibility to be in the world, and contributes to the well-being of people and the community. A servant leader looks to the needs of the people and asks how he or she can help them solve their problems and promote personal development. He or she places his main focus on people, because only content and motivated people are able to reach their targets and to fulfill the set expectations. The concept of servant leadership is crucial for youth in Christian leadership as it enables one understand themselves first so they can learn to understand others and serve them. Thereafter people gain trust in the leader and begin to work towards the intended goal. (Berkley, 2005) The goals of a Christian leader should be to bring glory to God with their existence, evangelize, advance the kingdom, and encourage others to grow in their relationship with Christ. There are certain base characteristics that all Christian leaders must possess if they wish to be stewards of the Gospel, inspire hope among the nations, and ultimately accomplish their goals. Submission to God must be the starting point for each individual. We must allow God to lead us and shape our lives to fit his desires if we wish to leave an impact on this world. This requires one to be daily seeking and engaging with God in prayer and in His Word. It is our actions and choices in life that define how others see us, and ultimately decide the kind of impact we leave on the world. These actions and choices are largely shaped by what we believe in and value. By allowing the Bible to shape them, a spiritual maturity will begin to flourish within the heart of a leader. They will begin to see the world as God sees it, and they will begin to see every person living on this world today as a beautiful and valuable creation of God. (Hybels, 2009) Furthermore, according to (Berkley, 2005) leaders will understand the implications of sin and how it separates us from God, which will create a longing to help others be reconciled. A leader must strive to be an example for others by trying to obediently follow Gods commands and exhorting others to do so, but also must be careful not to fall into judgment. (Berkley, 2005) Instead, they learn to love others unconditionally as Christ would have, serving the people and working patiently with them to help them see the need of God in their life. Raising young leaders for Christian leadership is a challenging process. Raising and developing young leaders mainly entails inculcating Christian values in them at a tender age, encouraging them to participate in church activities so they can understand leadership from a Christian perspective, and ensuring they attain the right academic skills to enable them compete with the world. IMPORTANCE OF PREPARING YOUTH FOR CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP Ministry with young people has never been more important. Ever-increasing local, national and global concerns demand that schools must do more than prepare young people as responsible citizens. (Adair, 2001) says that schools and in particular, institutions of higher learning must prepare young people as emerging leaders with a civic conscience who proactively seek solutions to issues such as increased poverty, the plight of refugees, terrorism, climate change, and corporate greed. With reference to Christian leadership, ministry can be broken down to three parts namely: Youth ministry, Campus ministry and Student ministry. Youth ministry (Fernando, 2000) describes youth ministry as a formalized Church-based program that is clearly centered on young people. He presents a framework for youth ministry based on three goals. These goals are firstly, to foster the personal and spiritual growth of each young person, secondly, to draw young people into responsible participation in the life, mission and work of the church community, and thirdly, to empower young people to live as disciples of Jesus Christ in the world today. The goals are advanced through six focus areas: prayer and worship, evangelization, community life, justice and service, leadership development, and advocacy (Fernando, 2000, Leaders for tomorrows world pp. 7). These goals build on one another and are paramount for good Christian leadership. In addition, they are important as they help bring up an all-rounded and well-versed Christian leader who can combat the challenges of the modern society. Campus ministry The focus of Christian ministry among the youth is greatly aimed at young men and women in college and university making campus ministry a focal point in developing Christian leaders. Campus ministry has four main elements according to (Nanko, 1997). These are: a focus on young people, the ministry takes place in the context of an educational institution, the various programs attempt to challenge the faith life or spirituality of students into active participation, and the campus minister is central to the effective running of the ministry. Young people in campus should be encouraged to integrate ministry with their field of study so as to learn how to be most effective in society. A good example is seen in Christian universities where students from several disciplines attend chapel on a regular basis to facilitate spiritual growth. This enables the students to develop as Christian leaders and grow to other levels of campus ministry like: missions, evangelism and regular participation in church related activities which facilitates interaction with other young students in ministry. Student ministry This nature of ministry involves working with young people in a school setting. It frequently incorporates many of the programs associated with youth ministry and campus ministry. Such programs include: student leadership development, service-learning and social justice, retreats, prayer and reflection. (Means, 2000) In this respect, student ministry, youth ministry and campus ministry have strong connections. The main differences lie in the explicit leadership focus inherent in all student ministry programs, the mentoring role which teachers adopt when working with students, and the leadership responsibilities that many students exercise when working with fellow students. A good illustration of student ministry is seen in campuses where students take up leadership roles in the church and handle activities such as: praise and worship, bible study, event planning and preaching. This enables the leaders to gain experience in church related activities while under the mentorship of senio r church leaders and teachers. In addition, the leaders learn to take responsibility being in positions of leadership, inculcate discipline within their lives and grow closer to God at a personal level. CHALLENGES IN PREPARING YOUTH FOR CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP In the process of maintaining the authentic character of Christian leadership, leaders face many challenges. Many of them are perennial, given with the very character of Christian leadership as being rooted in God and directed toward the good of the world. These challenges may occur when people assume positions of Christian leadership for the wrong reasons that include: power, prestige, and personal gain rather than as a result of the call of God. These challenges can be further broken down into three key areas: The will of God, the authority of the church and time management. The will of God In most cases, Christian leaders have responded to a genuine call of God, but may have lost sight of their calling and their fundamental character as beings translucent to God. When this happens, leaders are deprived of the animating power of God to continually ground and sustain leadership in the life of God, as stated in (Kinnaman, 2007). And yet, since they are religious leaders, they often have to act as if they have already actualized what they are preaching in their own lives, as if they are bringing the message somehow from God. Instead of real ascent in Gods word, there is a pretense of ascent mostly not intentional, but negligent and usually a result of the pressures of responsibilities, the accumulated force of disappointments, and many other reasons leading to the gradual erosion of faith. (Nanko, 2001) Young Christian leaders face the very real dangers associated with modern culture head on. Increased expectations, time constraints, developing disciples in an increasingly secular society, and an entire host of dangers in personal and professional life abound. Many of the pressures to which young leaders succumb, causing personal burnout and fatigue, are as a result of personal mismanagement. (Berkley, 2005) We each have decisions to make with regard to how much and in what way will own these expectations and perceived pressures. Authority of the church The great authority of the Church resides in the power of the testimony of Jesus. In a modern culture which asserts that truth is relative, it is difficult for a Christian leader to begin to lead a person into Gods will for their life when at a foundational level they do not recognize that the testimony of Jesus is unique and trustworthy. The modern worldview influenced by Western liberal culture, which is common in various forms today, presents a great challenge for Christian leaders as seen in (Hybels, 2009) and can only be controlled by continual spiritual nourishment and constant prayer. Time management Personal time management is crucial to ones successful usage of their time. Dangers are very real in modern Christian leadership. In order to have the strength to stand, young Christian leaders must manage their efforts in such a way as to properly manage themselves. (Nanko, 2001) Christian leaders face temptations of every kind to fall into sin. As the modern culture becomes increasingly celebrity based, young leaders in ministry face the real temptation of pride. In order to avoid burnout, fatigue, and temptation to sin, (Means, 2000) suggests that Christian leaders must remain grounded in the Lords strength and provision. The management of personal and professional time is central to this. We must make time for God, family, and personal rest and development in order to stay alert and healthy for the work of the kingdom. RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING PREPARING YOUTH FOR CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP Reading widely and having a good command of language According to (Fernando, 2000), in the coming years we will need well-educated young men and women. Therefore a young, aspiring Christian leader should read widely, ranging from people they agree with to people they dont agree with. All things being equal, the people who can speak with confidence and who can write clearly will rise to the top in any field. (Fernando, 2000) also recommends taking speech classes as well as taking advantage of technology as far as writing is concerned as it gives one a huge advantage in this generation. Identifying ones strengths and making good decisions Identifying ones strengths varies from one individual to another in terms of time. (Means, 2000) says that, In the beginning, you naturally think you can do everything. You cant. Youll learn that the hard way. Find out what you do that God blesses and keep on doing it. A young leader should not get stuck in the trap of thinking that they have to be a pastor or a teacher or a missionary forever as we are past the days when people would stay in the same position for a lifetime. As a Christian leader, one should understand that their only call is to serve the Lord in whatever way he or she chooses. Therefore it is important to remain flexible. Beware of envy and learn how to be all-round In the game of life, we are all constantly being compared to everyone around us. We, especially church leaders are being measured, quantified, and examined to see how well we are doing versus those around us and there is nothing we can do about it. (Adair, 2004), Envy tends to be the sin of moderately successful people and one should pray to be delivered from it as it destroys joy and makes one a miserable person. When beginning church ministry, one is rarely able to specialize and should learn how to be a jack of all trades and a master of a few. Travel In todays world, diversity is the order of the day and the future belongs to those who have multicultural experience. Aspiring Christian leaders should be encouraged to participate in a semester exchange program and study abroad. The experience gained by learning about other cultures, and a different people in a different setting is priceless as (Fernando, 2000) puts it. In addition, it gives one new vision for the global cause of Christ. CONCLUSION Christian leadership is indeed challenging especially for young aspiring leaders but with the right approach and guidance one can succeed in the field. As John F. Kennedy said, Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other. It is important for all young aspiring leaders to recognize that leadership is a learning process and that the more one learns, the more they earn the right to lead.

Leadership in Nursing

Leadership in Nursing Definitions, Theories, and Styles of Leadership in Nursing Developing future nurse leaders is one of the greatest challenges faced by the nursing profession (Mahoney, 2001). Powerful leadership skills are needed by all nurses and especially for those providing direct care to those in top management positions. Anyone who is looked to as an authority (including, for instance, a nurse treating a patient) or who is responsible for giving assistance to others is considered a leader (Curtis, DeVries and Sheerin, 2011). A clinical nursing leader is one who is involved in direct patient care and who continuously improves the care that is afforded to such persons by influencing the treatment provision delivered by others (Cook, 2001). Leadership is not merely a series of skills or tasks; rather, it is an attitude that informs behaviour (Cook, 2001). In addition, good leadership can be seen as demonstrating consistently superior performance; further it delivers long term benefits to all those involved, either in the delivery or receipt of care. Leaders are not merely those who control others; they are visionaries who help employees to plan, lead, control, and organise their activities (Jooste, 2004). Leadership has been defined in many ways within existent academic literature. However, several features are common to most definitions of leadership. For example, leadership is a process, involves influence, usually occurs in a group setting, involves the attainment of a goal, and exists at all levels (Faugier and Woolnough, 2002). In addition, there are several recognised leadership styles. For instance, autocratic leaders set an end goal without allowing others to participate in the decision-making process (Curtis, DeVries and Sheering, 2011), whereas bureaucratic leadership occurs in scenarios where a leader rigidly adheres to rules, regulations, and policies. In contrast, participative leaders allow staff to participate in decision-making and actively seek out the participation of stakeholders within the decision. This type of leadership allows team members to feel more committed to the goals they were involved with formulating (Fradd, 2004). Laissez-faire leadership leaves employees to their own devices in meeting goals, and is a highly risky form of leadership as Faugier and Woolnough (2002) further posit. Finally, a more effective form of leadership than those hitherto mentioned, may be situational leadership. This is where the leader switches between the above styles depending upon the situation at hand and upon the competence of the followers (Faugier and Woolnough, 2002). There is a difference between theory and styles of leadership. According to Moiden (2002), theory represents reality, whereas style of leadership refers to the various ways one can implement a theory of leadership the way in which something is said or done. Organisations should, it follows, aim for a leadership style that allows for high levels of work performance, with few disruptions, and that is applicable in a wide variety of situational circumstances, in an efficient manner (Moiden, 2002). Similarly, there is a difference between management and leadership. Managers plan, organise and control, while leaders communicate vision, motivate, inspire and empower in order to create organisational change (Faugier and Woolnough, 2002). Transactional versus transformational leadership Outhwaite (2003) suggests that transactional leadership involves the skills required in the effective day to day running of a team. However, transformational leadership also involves ensuring that an integrated team works together and may also benefit from the inclusion of innovativeness of approach in work (Outhwaite, 2003). For example, a leader can empower team members by allowing individuals to lead certain aspects of a project based on their areas of expertise. This will, in turn, encourage the development of individual leadership skills, which improve both the individuals skills and their future career prospects. In addition, leaders should explore barriers and identify conflicts when they arise, and then work collaboratively with the members of their team to resolve these (Outhwaite, 2003). Furthermore, the leader should remain a part of the team, sharing in the work, thus remaining close to operations and being able to understand the employees perspective, rather than being a leader who is distanced from the actual work of the team for which he or she is responsible (Outhwaite, 2003). Transactional leadership focuses on providing day-to-day care, while transformational leadership is more focused on the processes that motivate followers to perform to their full potential. Thus, the latter works by influencing change and providing a sense of direction (Cook, 2001). The ability of a leader to articulate a shared vision is an important aspect of transformational leadership, as Faugier and Woolnough (2002) observe. In addition, transactional leadership is most concerned with managing predictability and order, while transformational leaders recognise the importance of challenging the status quo in order to enhance positive possibilities within the project that they are delivering as Faugier and Woolnough, (2002) posit. One group of authors that have described the use of transformational leadership by Magnet hospitals are De Geest et al. (2003). In so doing they discuss how the leadership style deployed within the hospitals allows for faith and respect to be instilled, the treatment of employees as individuals, and innovation in problem solving, along with the transmission of values and ethical principles, and the provision of challenging goals while communicating a vision for the future (De Geest et al., 2003). Transformational leadership is, as they further comment, especially well-suited to todays fast-changing health care environment where adaptation is extremely important, especially with regard to changing technologies and the seemingly ever-increasing expectations of patients. In elucidating further, the authors cite a range of findings that this leadership style is positively associated with higher employee satisfaction and better performance. These, in turn, correlate positively with higher patient satisfaction (De Geest et al., 2003). One way to facilitate change using transformational leadership involves the use of action learning (De Geest et al., 2003). In this approach, leaders use directive, supportive, democratic, and enabling methods to implement and sustain change and the effects of such leadership enable better outcomes for both nurses and patients to be realised. Transformational leadership focuses on the interpersonal processes between leaders and followers and is encouraged by empowerment (Hyett, 2003). Empowered nurses are able not only to believe in their own ability but also to create and adapt to change. When using a team approach to leadership, it is important to set boundaries, goals, accountability, and set in motion structural support for team members (Hyett, 2003). Transformational leadership is thus seen as empowering, but the nurse manager must balance the use of power in a democratic fashion to avoid the appearance of their abusing the power that they have been given (Welford, 2002). Finally, as Hyett (2003) also notes, respect and trust of staff by the leader is essential for transformational leadership to work. Clinical or shared governance Clinical governance is a new way of working in which e National Health Service (NHS) organisations are accountable for continuous quality improvement, safeguarding standards of care, and creating an environment in which clinical excellence can flourish (Moiden, 2002). The requirements of several recent UK government policies require that new forms of leadership that better reflect the diversity of the workforce and the community being developed. Since Scott and Caress (2005) noted this, leadership needs have continued to be strengthened and the need to involve all staff in clinical leadership further developed. Shared governance has been, as Hyett (2003) notes, one method by which this goal has been realised. It has proven to be an effective form of leadership because it empowers all staff and makes them part of decision making processes, thereby additionally allowing staff to work together to develop multi-professional care (Rycroft et al., 2004). Such shared governance has resulted in the increased utilisation of a decentralised style of management in which all team members have responsibility and managers are facilitative, rather than using a hierarchical which, as Scott and Caress (2005) maintain, has led to increased morale and job satisfaction, increased motivation and staff contribution, the encouragement of creativity, and an increased sense of worth amongst NHS employees at all levels. Knowledge, attitudes, and skills of an effective nurse leader In addition to the skills hitherto noted in the opening sections of this assignment, nurse leaders should have knowledge of management, communication, and teamwork skills, as well as a solid understanding of health economics, finance, and evidence-based outcomes (Mahoney, 2001). These core skills should ideally be further enhanced by the possession of a range of key personal qualities. Mahoney (2001) asserts that these are desirable in all nurse leaders and include competence, confidence, courage, collaboration, and creativity. Nurse leaders should also be aware of the changing environment in health care best practice and make changes proactively. Leaders who show concern for the needs and objectives of staff members and are cognisant of the conditions affecting the work environment that also encourage productivity, as Moiden, (2003) notes, which is important as it allows a philosophy of productivity to be established. According to Jooste (2004), the three pillars essential to a foundation of strong leadership are authority, power, and influence. It follows, therefore, that to be an effective leader in todays competitive environment, leaders should use influence more, and authority and power, less. It is more important, as Jooste (2004) further notes, to be able to motivate, persuade, appreciate, and negotiate than to merely wield power and, in advancing this line of argument, the author cites three categories of influence for nurse leaders to use in creating a supportive care environment. These include: modelling by example, building caring relationships, and mentoring by instruction (Jooste, 2004). Such skills should also, according to De Geest et al. (2003), be combined with the utilisation of five specific practices that are fundamental to good leadership: g inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, challenging processes, modelling, and encouraging. For example, a leader may challenge others to act by recognising contributions and by fostering collaboration. Such techniques are important because recognising contributions also serves to encourage employees in their work whilst team leadership moves the focus away from the leader towards the team as a whole (Mahoney, 2001). Applications to practice settings Hyett (2003) describes several barriers to health visitors taking on a leadership role and observes that visitors usually work in a self-led environment, which causes problems because there may be no mechanism for self-control or decision-making at the point of service, thus stifling innovation. In addition, if nurses who do try to initiate change are not supported, they lose confidence and assertiveness and may feel disempowered and unable to support one another, which will lead to declining standards of motivation and may negatively impact upon patient care (Fradd, 2004). Management often focuses on the volume of services provided, leading to loss of self-esteem and a rise in dependence; this, as Hyett (2003) recognises, may cause workers to become disruptive, or to leave the organisation, which culminates in organisational upheaval. Further, when staff leave as a result of feeling disempowered, replacements need to be found and trained which involves not only additional recruitment costs but training as new people are introduced into the culture of the organisation. In addition to the comments made by Hyett, focus group data from a study of implementing change in a nursing home suggests that nurses want a leader with drive, enthusiasm, and credibility to lead them and to inspire them, for they do not merely want a leader who has superiority (Rycroft-Malone et al., 2004). Further, focus group members identified the qualities desired in a leader who is attempting to facilitate change. This person should have knowledge of the collaborative project, have status with the team, be able to manage others, take a positive approach to management, and possess good management skills (Rycroft-Malone et al., 2004). Applications to the wider health and social context Nursing leaders function at all levels of nursing from the ward through to top nursing management. Over time, the function of leadership has changed from one of authority and power to one of being powerful without being overpowering (Jooste, 2004). Boundaries between upper, middle, and lower level leaders are becoming increasingly blurred, and responsibilities are becoming less static and more flexible in nature. In other words, there is a trend toward decentralisation of responsibility and authority from upper to lower levels of health care delivery (Jooste, 2004). An ongoing programme of political leadership at the Royal College of Nursing describes a multi-step model for political influence (Large et al., 2005). Some of the steps include: identifying the issue to be changed, turning the issue into a proposal for change, finding and speaking with supporters and stakeholders to develop a collective voice, pinpointing desired policy change outcomes, and constructing effective messages to optimise communication (Large et al., 2005). These can be all be viewed as important for through learning them the nurse leader can adopt to the organisational expectations of the twenty-first century NHS. Education for leadership In order for nursing practice to improve, an investment must be made in educating nurses to be effective leaders (Cook, 2001). Cook contends that leadership should be introduced in initial nursing preparation curricula, and mentoring should be available for aspiring nurse leaders not only during their formal training but throughout their careers (2001). The importance of this enlarged approach can be seen, for example, in the use of evidence-based practice which requires nurses to be able to evaluate evidence and formulate solutions based upon the best available evidence (Cook, 2001). In order for these things to occur, it is important that nurses have educational preparation for leadership during training to prepare them to have a greater understanding and enhanced control of events that may occur during work situations (Moiden, 2002). This can be seen as a step towards the greater professionalisation of the nursing profession a movement that has also increasingly seen nurses gaining formal academic qualifications over the previous ten years. Indeed, such is the embracing of professional accreditation that the NHS has adopted the Leading an Empowered Organisation (LEO) project in order to encourage the use of transformational leadership (Moiden, 2002). By doing so, the NHS hopes to ensure that professionals may empower themselves and others through responsibility, authority, and accountability. The programme also aims to help professionals develop autonomy, take risks, solve problems, and articulate responsibility (Moiden, 2002). Strategies such as the Leading and Empowered Organisation (LEO) programme and the RCN Clinical Leaders Programme are designed to produce future leaders in nursing who are aware of the benefits of transformational leadership (Faugier andWoolnough, 2002). This is therefore not only a programme that is relevant to todays NHS but is also one that is preparing the nursing leaders of tomorrow. Challenges and opportunities to stimulate change The health care environment is constantly changing and producing new challenges that the nurse leader must work within (Jooste, 2004). Leadership involves enabling people to produce extraordinary things whilst simultaneously performing their daily duties and adapting to challenge and change (Jooste, 2004). While management in the past took a direct, hierarchical approach to leadership, the time has come for a better leadership style that includes encouragement, listening, and facilitating (Hyett, 2003). Hyett (2003, p. 231) cites Yoder-Wise (1999) as defining leadership as the ability to create new systems and methods to accomplish a desired vision. Today, the belief is that anyone can be a leader and thus leadership is a learnable set of skills and practices (Hyett, 2003). All nurses must display leadership skills such as adaptability, self-confidence, and judgment in the provision of health care (Hyett, 2003). Indeed, the expectation of both higher professionals and the general public receiving care is that nurses lead care, and that they are able to move seamlessly between roles of leading and following, depending upon the individual scenario faced (Hyett, 2003). Empowering patients to participate in the decision-making process Only when health care services are well-led will they be well-organised in meeting the needs of patients (Fradd, 2004). Nurses have considerable influence on the health care experience enjoyed by individual patients, especially as patient involvement in care is most often nurse-led (Fradd, 2004). Today, patients are more aware of their own health care needs and better informed about treatments and practice; it is also imperative that patients are able to enunciate their own health care needs and contribute to discussions relating to their treatment options. Such enhanced levels of health care communication require nurses to be better equipped with analytical and assertiveness skills, especially if they need to fight the patients corner against the opinion of an individual doctor who may place his own opinions above those of the patient (Outhwaite, 2003). Transformational leadership is ideal for todays nursing practice as it seeks to satisfy needs, and involves both the leader and the follower in meeting needs (Welford, 2002). It is also flexible and this allows the leader to adapt in varied situations. It is logical, therefore, that if the leader accepts that things will change often, followers will enjoy this flexibility. As a result, both nurses and patients benefit because the avoidance of hierarchical structures and the embracing of new ways in which to work help organisations to put resources together to create added value for both employees and consumers (Mahoney, 2001). 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